Personality Trait When Someone Is Sometimes Funny
Introduction
Humor is an essential component of interpersonal communication. Earlier enquiry framed humor as an adaptive trait enhancing one'southward physical and psychological wellness (Lefcourt, 2001). Later on, a more nuanced model outlined two central humor dimensions. The get-go dimension determines that humour can be either benign or injurious; while the 2d dimension differentiates the potential of sense of humour to enhance the relationship with either others or the cocky. The interaction of these 2 dimensions leads to four singled-out humor styles: affiliative sense of humor (friendly humor to enhance interpersonal bounds), cocky-enhancing humour (benignly enhancing the self), cocky-defeating humor (amusing others through self-disparaging), and aggressive humour (putting others down to raise oneself, e.g., sarcastically) (Martin et al., 2003). Studies empirically linked these humor styles to differential constructs, evidencing their distinctiveness. Affiliative and cocky-enhancing humour styles, for example, take been shown to chronicle to positive outcomes similar cocky-esteem (Galloway, 2010), mental toughness (Veselka et al., 2010), and social support (DeLongis and Holtzman, 2005). In dissimilarity, self-defeating sense of humour has been linked to social isolation, emotional distress, and hostility, while ambitious sense of humor is related to externalizing problems (Dozois et al., 2013).
The current written report focusses on humor at its relationship with two personality constellations that strongly impact interpersonal relationships: psychopathy and narcissism. Psychopathy is characterized past deficits in emotional function and hating beliefs. Narcissism primarily reflects a cognitive-affective preoccupation with the cocky. Communalities in both of these sets of traits are a self-centered focus, and the tendency to place one's needs above those of others. Consequently, familial, parenting, romantic, and professional relationships of people with increased levels of psychopathy or narcissism are frequently characterized past high stress levels, low delivery, conflicts, and counter productivity (eastward.g., Campbell and Foster, 2002; Penney and Spector, 2002; Fite et al., 2008; Campbell et al., 2011). Excessive levels of both psychopathic and egotistic traits are often constitute in forensic and criminal settings (Spaans et al., 2017; Lambe et al., 2018), and are related to therapy-resistance and increased levels of re-offending (e.chiliad., Bennett, 2015; Shepherd and Strand, 2016). Yet, inquiry has as well shown that psychopathic and narcissistic traits do not uniquely express in clinical or forensic subgroups. Rather, they reverberate dimensional constructs with varying levels in the full general population (Guay et al., 2007), which is also the target group of the current study. Importantly, psychopathy and narcissism should not be seen as unitary only rather every bit multi-faceted concepts. For psychopathy, in that location is good back up for a triarchic model (Patrick et al., 2009; Drislane et al., 2014), which identifies boldness (authorisation, emotional stability, and venturesomeness), disinhibition (deficient inhibitory control), and meanness (callousness and ambitious resources seeking) as core distinct psychopathic features. Within narcissism, generally four subfactors are differentiated: superiority/arrogance, self-assimilation/cocky-administration, exploitativeness/entitlement, and leadership/authority. While the latter subfactor can be more adaptive in nature, the other egotistic traits largely impact social relationships maladaptively (Miller and Campbell, 2008; Pincus and Lukowitsky, 2010).
Previous empirical studies on sense of humor styles and psychopathic and narcissistic traits mostly supported the link betwixt these personality constellations and the negative humor styles (i.east., ambitious and self-defeating). Additionally, narcissistic traits take been linked to both positive humor styles (Veselka et al., 2010; Besser and Zeigler-Hill, 2011; Zeigler-Hill and Besser, 2011; Martin et al., 2012; Masui et al., 2013). Aside from this, hypotheses on which sense of humour styles would correlate to psychopathic and narcissistic traits can exist based on the socioanalytical theory (Hogan and Foster, 2016), which describes personality traits primarily in terms of private differences in expressing motives to either getting alee or getting along. A like distinction is between an agentic versus a communal focus, with the outset referring to power and achievement, and the latter to one'south sense of belonging and relationships with others (Woike, 1994). Both psychopathy and narcissism are primarily related to aiming to get ahead and to an agentic focus (Campbell et al., 2007; Jones and Paulhus, 2011; Rauthmann and Kolar, 2013; Grijalva and Zhang, 2016; Jonason and Fletcher, 2018). Humor can be considered as a form of an believing cocky-presentation technique that people with egotistic and psychopathic traits use to maintain and raise their reputation when interacting with others. Such reputation improvement can exist established by enhancing i'south ain status, that is, by getting ahead or by lowering the others' statuses. Therefore, both psychopathic and narcissistic traits can be assumed to predispose to augmenting ane's condition through self-enhancing humor. Considering psychopathic traits accept too been linked to adaptive features such as leadership (Lilienfeld et al., 2012) and happiness (Durand, 2018), and narcissism to extraversion (Vernon et al., 2009) and optimism (Hickman et al., 1996), these traits might too predispose to the utilise of affiliative sense of humor for the sake of cocky-status enhancement. Conversely, an constructive manner to lower other people's status is aggression, that is, behavior intended to harm someone who does non want to exist hurt (Bushman and Anderson, 2001). Both reactive (i.eastward., impulsive) and proactive (i.e., premediated) aggression accept been empirically linked to psychopathy (Reidy et al., 2007; Falkenbach et al., 2008) and narcissism (Bushman et al., 2009), as assessed by self-report and behavioral aggression measures. Thus, the apply of an aggressive sense of humor style might be predisposed in narcissistic and psychopathic traits.
Study Aims and Hypotheses
Although our cognition about the humor correlates of psychopathy and narcissism are vastly improving, three questions remain unaddressed. First, none of the previous studies addressed the triarchic psychopathy components. To address this lacuna, the current study will be the first in the humor area assessing psychopathy with the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised (PPI-R) (Lilienfeld and Widows, 2005). 2d, with one exception (Martin et al., 2012), previous studies only examined the relationships between sense of humour and total psychopathy and narcissism scores, preventing sufficient insight into how sense of humor relates to both concepts' differential subcomponents. Third, previous studies were solely based on raw correlational analyses uncontrolled for the other (sub)factors. To fill these gaps, the current study will use a sufficiently powered sample that allows combining the global psychopathy and narcissism scores forth with their subfactors—to provide a fine-grained agreement of the unique contribution of the triarchic psychopathic and 4-level narcissistic subcomponents to humor. The first aim of this study is to assess how psychopathy and its subfactors relate to humour, and the 2nd aim to assess how narcissism and its subfactors relate to humour. Nosotros generally expect both sets of traits to relate to increased employ of self-enhancing and affiliative humor, as well every bit aggressive humour styles.
Materials and Methods
Participants
The sample consisted of Northward = 177 male person participants recruited at Maastricht University. The boilerplate age was 28.08 years, SD = 12.56, 18–68. Only males were included to avert confounding gender or floor effects because males tend to demonstrate higher levels of psychopathic traits (e.g., Lilienfeld and Andrews, 1996) and narcissism (eastward.chiliad., Foster et al., 2003). Seventy-v percent of participants were Dutch, 18.5% German, and 6.2% were of other nationalities. Sixty-half dozen pct were students, 22.eight% employed, iv.7% work-seeking, and 6.5% were otherwise engaged. Near half (53.1%) of participants highest completed instruction was high school or low-level vocational, 14.vii% secondary, and 29.97% high-level, while ii.iii% did non disclose their status.
Measures
Sense of humor
Humor styles were assessed using the 32-item Humor Manner Questionnaire (HSQ) (Martin et al., 2003; Dutch version: Dikkers et al., 2011), which measures affiliative, self-enhancing, self-defeating, and ambitious humour styles. Each item has to exist rated on a seven-bespeak Likert calibration ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). The HSQ has displayed adequate internal consistencies for each of the subscales ranging from α = 0.76 to 0.83 for both the English and the Dutch version (Martin et al., 2003; de Graaf, 2014). Further, information technology had good examination-retest correlations and low intercorrelations between the scales indicating distinct dimensions (Martin et al., 2003). The HSQ'southward construct validity was evidenced by positive correlations betwixt the affiliative/self-enhancing scales and life satisfaction and negative correlations with depressive symptoms, while it'due south cocky-defeating and ambitious subscales demonstrated these relationships inversely. Additionally, the HSQ predicted well-being over and beyond the furnishings of neuroticism (Dyck and Holtzman, 2013). The HSQ'south construct validity has been previously challenged though when, for case, its incremental value to psychological well-being reduced one time personality traits (large five inventory) and humor context were deemed for Ruch (2013). Using the current sample, internal consistency levels were α = 0.61 for affiliative, 0.76 for self-enhancing, and 0.74 for both the self-defeating and aggressive humor HSQ subscales.
Psychopathy
Psychopathic traits were assessed using the 154-detail PPI-R (Lilienfeld and Andrews, 1996; Lilienfeld and Widows, 2005; Dutch version: Uzieblo et al., 2006), which is answered using a 4-indicate Likert calibration (1 = simulated to 4 = truthful). Total PPI scores reverberate a global index of psychopathy and includes eight subscales. Factor analytic studies revealed a 3-gene conceptualization: fearless-dominance (FD), self-centered impulsivity (SCI), and cold-heartedness (Cold) (English: Benning et al., 2003; Dutch: Uzieblo et al., 2010). Previously, FD and SCI have been established equally the PPI-R's master components comprising vii out of eight subscales. Common cold-heartedness did not load on either of these two scales, making up the third factor. This iii-gene model is in line with the triarchic model of psychopathy (Patrick et al., 2009). The PPI-R has previously demonstrated good external validity (Benning et al., 2003; Uzieblo et al., 2010) high internal consistency (Uzieblo et al., 2010; Hall et al., 2014), and test-retest reliability (Sandler, 2007). The PPI-R's factor structure has shown a tighter human relationship to the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; Hare, 1991), the gilded standard in clinical psychopathy cess (Poythress et al., 2010), and outperformed the psychometric properties of the Levenson Self-Written report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP) in (non)clinical samples (Falkenbach et al., 2007). Using the current sample, internal consistency levels were α = 0.xc for full PPI-R, and 0.91 for the FD, 0.87 for the SCI, and 0.75 for the Cold PPI-R subscales.
Narcissism
Grandiose narcissism was assessed with the 37-item Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) (Raskin and Hall, 1979; Morf and Rhodewalt, 1993; Dutch version: Barelds and Dijkstra, 2010). The items are rated on a seven-indicate Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly hold). According to Emmons (1984); Emmons (1987) a four-factor solution is nigh optimal, consisting of superiority and arrogance (SUA), self-assimilation and self-assistants (SEA), exploitativeness and entitlement (EE), and leadership and authority (LA). The NPI has shown good construct validity (Raskin and Terry, 1988; Barelds and Dijkstra, 2010), skilful internal (sub)calibration reliabilities (Emmons, 1987; Brownish and Zeigler-Loma, 2004), and high test-retest correlations (del Rosario and White, 2005). Using the current sample, internal consistency levels were α = 0.89 for full NPI, and 0.66 for the SUA, 0.80 for the Sea, 0.71 for the EE, and 0.84 for the LA NPI subscales.
Procedure
Participants were recruited using flyer advertisement and convenience sampling. Following written consent, questionnaires were administered on a calculator and presented in a random order. Native Dutch participants conducted the written report in Dutch, and other participants conducted the study in English. Later on completing the inquiry, the participants were debriefed, thanked, and either received course credits or a financial compensation. This study was approved by the ethics committee of Maastricht Academy, reference numbers 114_06_05_2012, 2014_04_28_08_42_15, and 145_07_10_2014.
Statistical Analyses
All analyses were conducted using SPSS version 24 (IBM Corp, 2016). Correlations between the written report variables were assessed using Pearson correlations. Regression analyses were conducted to assess the relationships between humour and the psychopathy and narcissism subscales. Hither, the humour styles served as the dependent variable, while the psychopathy and narcissism subscales were predictors. To address the first research aim, each sense of humor style was assessed separately by means of multiple regressions enter-method with the PPI-R subfactors as simultaneous predictors. To accost the second research aim, the same was done with the NPI subfactors as predictors.
Results
Descriptive Results
Descriptive statistics and correlation analyses can exist seen in Table 1. Significant positive correlations between all styles of humor, except between cocky-enhancing and self-defeating humour, were observedane.
Table 1. Mean, standard deviations and intercorrelations among report variables (Northward = 177).
Aim ane: Relationship Betwixt Sense of humor and Psychopathic Traits
Affiliative sense of humour was positively correlated with all psychopathic variables except for PPI-R-Cold. Self-enhancing humor was significantly associated with PPI-R-total and PPI-R-FD. Cocky-defeating humor was positively correlated with PPI-R-SCI and negatively with PPI-R-Common cold. Aggressive humor exhibited positive significant relations with PPI-R-full and PPI-R-SCI (Table 1).
The regression analysis using all PPI subscales, revealed significant models for affiliative (F = fifteen.61, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.21), self-enhancing (F = six.89, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.11), self-defeating (F = 11.18, p < 0.001, R two = 0.16), and aggressive humor (F = xvi.47, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.22). Affiliative humour was significantly positively predicted by PPI-R-FD and PPI-R-SCI, and negatively by PPI-R-Cold. PPI-R-FD was the simply positive significant predictor of self-enhancing sense of humor. Self-defeating humor was significantly positively associated with PPI-R-SCI and negatively with PPI-R-Cold. PPI-R-SCI was a significantly positively related to ambitious humor (Table 2).
Tabular array ii. Results of the iv sets of multiple regression analyses with humor styles equally dependent variables, and separately psychopathy total, narcissism total, psychopathy subscales, and narcissism subscales as contained variables (N = 177).
Aim 2: Relationship Between Humor and Narcissistic Traits
Affiliative and aggressive humor positively correlated with all narcissism variables. Self-enhancing sense of humour was significantly associated with total narcissism and the subscales of SUA, Ocean, and LA. Moreover, self-defeating humor was positively correlated with NPI-total and NPI-EE (Table i).
The multiple regression analysis with all NPI subscales demonstrated a significant model for affiliative humor (F = half dozen.28, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.xiii), in which NPI-SEA served as the positive predictor. Self-enhancing humor revealed a meaning model (F = 3.thirty, p < 0.05, R 2 = 0.07) and was significantly positively predicted by NPI-SUA. The models for self-defeating (F = iv.63, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.10) and ambitious humour (F = 9.61, p < 0.001, R two = 0.18) were significant, and NPI-EE positively and significantly predicted both these humour styles (Table two).
Discussion
This study investigated humor styles in 2 night forms of psychopathological traits that negatively bear on interpersonal relationships. Specifically, the focus was on subclinical levels of (subcomponents of) psychopathy and grandiose narcissism. Overall, psychopathic and egotistic traits related to diverse benign and injurious sense of humour styles, directed toward others and the self.
Regarding the get-go report aim, as expected, total psychopathy scores showed to relate to affiliate, self-enhancing, and aggressive humor in a positive, and largely medium-potent, way. The link between psychopathy and aggressive sense of humor styles is in line with the fact that excessive assailment levels are reflected in several psychopathy criteria (Hare, 1991), and with experimental inquiry evidencing a positive relationship betwixt psychopathy and both self-reported (Falkenbach et al., 2008; Cima and Raine, 2009) and behavioral aggression (Reidy et al., 2007). This was further evidenced past our finding that the psychopathy subfactor of cocky-centered impulsivity drove this relationship, basically reflecting disinhibited antisocial behavior. This finding implies that the psychopathic personality components solitary may not exist sufficiently related to the use of aggressive humor, only in add-on, this use may be provoked by a lack of self-control. This study was the beginning to discover such clear evidence for a positive relationship between psychopathy and affiliative sense of humor. Analyses of the psychopathy subscales showed that this human relationship was driven by the fearless-dominance and self-centered impulsivity factors, suggesting that the boldness and the disinhibition aspects of psychopathy chronicle to an outgoing and carefree mental attitude including a tendency to connect with others through humor. Regarding self-enhancing humor, our data reveal that psychopathic tendencies in general, merely particularly boldness, equip people with the ability to cope with stressors through sense of humor. The positive and unique relationship betwixt self-defeating humor and the cocky-centered impulsivity psychopathy cistron bears a resemblance to Martin et al. (2012) who linked this humor way to the erratic lifestyle psychopathy component. Fifty-fifty though Martin et al. (2012) utilized a different psychopathy instrument [i.e., the Cocky-Report Psychopathy (SRP) Scale], their measurement follows the same factor structure as the PPI-R used in our sample (Benning et al., 2005; Derefinko and Lynam, 2006). Hence, both results suggest that peculiarly those loftier in disinhibition employ self-disparaging sense of humor to create bonds with others. Finally, the humor correlates of the cold-heartedness component of psychopathy—indicating affective detachment and meanness—distinctively deviates from the other psychopathy factors. Specifically, cold-heartedness was inversely related to both affiliative and self-defeating humour styles. This is in line with evidence pinpointing cold-heartedness as a unique determinant associated with a lack of emotionality and negative relations to the big v personality traits (peculiarly agreeableness) (Berg et al., 2015) and a reduced requirement for personal space (Vieira and Marsh, 2014). Moreover, cold-heartedness has been identified as a specific adventure factor for extremely devastating social behavior, such as heightened proactive criminal thinking (Walters, 2016) and increased bug-killing combined with college positive affect and decreased guilt (i.e., sadistic pleasure) (Lobbestael et al., 2020). Overall, our results practise not fit the conceptualization of psychopathy as a unitary, 1-dimensional construct (Marcus et al., 2013). Instead, they support the triarchic conceptualization of psychopathy (Patrick et al., 2009) in which boldness specifically drives the utilize of self-enhancing humor, and disinhibition fuels the utilize of aggressive and potentially cocky-defeating humour styles. In contrast, meanness turns out to be a item humorless concept. The latter finding highlights that cold-heartedness might be specially devastating for interpersonal relationships, every bit information technology prevents the use of humor to strengthen interpersonal bonds. While our findings on psychopathy and the use of ambitious and self-defeating sense of humor styles largely mimic previous studies, the current study was the commencement to reveal relationships with affiliative and cocky-enhancing sense of humor styles. The latter could exist attributed to measuring psychopathic traits using the PPI-R. Compared to measures similar the LSRP or SRP, the PPI-R has the advantage of assessing the triarchic components of psychopathy and existence of superior psychometric quality (Falkenbach et al., 2007).
Regarding the 2nd report aim, global grandiose narcissism scores displayed a positive relationship with all sense of humour styles. The expected relationship with affiliative and ambitious sense of humor was of medium effect size, while the self-directed humour styles represented small-scale effects. In-depth analyses of the different subscales of narcissism revealed that two subscales drove the utilise of benign sense of humor styles. Specifically, cocky-absorption/cocky-admiration traits predisposed to using humor to bond with others (i.eastward., affiliative), and superiority and arrogance traits increased the inclination to cope with difficult situations through humor (i.due east., self-enhancing). In contrast, the exploitative and entitlement calibration tin can exist considered the most maladaptive attribute of narcissism, related to increased use of both injurious humor styles. There has been abundant empirical evidence linking narcissism to aggression, for instance, through ego-threat (Bushman et al., 2009). Similar to previous studies (Zeigler-Hill and Besser, 2011; Martin et al., 2012), the current written report suggests that this link could plausibly exist further deepened by the employ of aggressive sense of humour, to put down or manipulate others. Although unpredicted in this report, narcissism has been shown to chronicle to self-defeating humor before (Besser and Zeigler-Hill, 2011; Zeigler-Loma and Besser, 2011). This could exist reflecting the self-critical or low self-esteem aspect assumed to underlie narcissists' grandiose overt display (Hashemite kingdom of jordan et al., 2003; Immature et al., 2003). Our study infers that self-defeating sense of humour might be instrumentally installed equally an exploitative ways to create bonds with others among those scoring high in narcissism.
Strengths of the electric current study include the investigation of how humor relates to the triarchic components of psychopathy and stricter analyses of the differential subfactors of psychopathy and narcissism. In addition, this is the kickoff study on humour tendencies using a European sample, which might be relevant given the cultural differences in the pregnant and expression of humor (Kalliny et al., 2006). Limitations include the use of a male person sample, preventing generalization to females. This might have impacted our findings on aggressive humor styles, which might be used and appreciated more frequently past males (Kotthoff, 2006). Future studies are needed to assess how gender might differentially impact the link between humor and personality traits similar psychopathy and narcissism. Another limitation is the reliance on cocky-reports of humor in this report. Especially, the use of aggressive humor might be underreported because of social desirability. Furthermore, the internal consistency level of the affiliate humor style was lower than that in other studies (e.g., Martin et al., 2003; Ruch and Heintz, 2017), and might have been due to the combination of a two-language sample. Lastly, given that the construct validity of the HSQ is sometimes challenged due to its possible overlap with personality traits (Ruch, 2013), it would be interesting for time to come studies to compare the incremental value of adding Big Five personality traits while investigating the human relationship between psychopathic/narcissistic traits and humor. Moreover, hereafter research should additionally examine the relation between psychopathic and egotistic traits and humor using, for example, the Humor-Beliefs Q-Sort Deck (Craik et al., 1996), to avoid the HSQ's uncertainties regarding its items' context (Ruch, 2013; Ruch and Heintz, 2017).
The current written report highlights the importance of humor in 2 of the nearly devastating types of psychopathologic traits. The fact that both sets of traits have shown to be linked to benign humor styles comes with potential societal implications. First, the link with affiliative humor shows that both psychopathic and egotistic traits are related to an intact, and even superior utilise of humour to create interpersonal bonds. Therefore, sense of humour could take the potential to serve equally a tool to strengthen and repair interpersonal relationships in people with elevated psychopathic and narcissistic traits—this is specially conceivable in example they would be able to succeed in simultaneously lowering their use of aggressive humor. Second, encouraging self-enhancing humor could potentially be benign because information technology has shown to be effective in coping with stress (Abel, 2002; Martin, 2006). In sharp dissimilarity, the use of injurious humor styles should be discouraged and be taken seriously equally a possible indication of undermining ane's cocky-prototype and one'due south relationships with significant others. A first step could be to raise the awareness of people with higher levels of psychopathy or narcissism regarding the probable devastating and perpetuating impact of using self-defeating or aggressive humor styles and help them in bending injurious humor styles to more adaptive interaction styles. In instance futurity studies evidence a causal link between humor and psychopathy/narcissism in a clinical sample, therapists might exist sensitized to the increased utilise of humor in therapeutic relationships with psychopathic and narcissistic clients, as a potential tool to create and strengthen the therapeutic relationship. Sense of humor has been shown to positively affect both handling outcomes and treatment satisfaction for patients and therapists (Kidd et al., 2009). Therefore, information technology is non surprising that several therapeutic strategies pinpoint the use of humor as an constructive therapeutic tool, for instance, through strengthening the germination of the Happy Child mode in Schema Therapy (Young et al., 2003).
Taken together, the electric current, fine-grained analyses of psychopathic and egotistic (sub)traits evidenced that sense of humour is a frequent and of import correlate of both these personality constellations. The two injurious humor styles (i.e., ambitious and self-defeating) were mostly associated with impulsivity and entitlement. Dominance levels seemed to activate the use of humor as a stress-coping method. Using humor for affiliative ways was linked to a broader range of psychopathic and egotistic traits. The cold-heartedness component of psychopathy conspicuously lacks humor which, again, stresses its especially disturbing nature.
Data Availability Statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this commodity will exist made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Ethics Statement
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by The Ethics Review Committee Psychology and Neuroscience (ERCPN). Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants.
Author Contributions
JL was responsible for study conceptualization and information collection. JL and VF were responsible for data training, information analysis, and written report writing. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
We thank Martijn van Teffelen for his help in information collection.
Supplementary Material
The Supplementary Fabric for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.548450/total#supplementary-fabric
Footnotes
- ^ The intercorrelations between the PPI-R and the NPI subscales are reported in the Supplementary Table.
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